FitSugar

What Causes Hiccups?

FitSugar — Fri, 27 Jul 2007 03:30:00 -0700

Everyone and their mother seems to have a unique cure for a bad case of the hiccups, but what I want to know is, what causes them in the first place?

A hiccup is an unintentional contraction of your diaphragm, the muscle that separates your chest from your abdomen. It plays an important role in breathing, and when it contracts, it makes your vocal cords close briefly and that's what causes the sound of a hiccup.

Hiccups are actually triggered by many things:

Eating spicy foods - It can cause irritation to the nerves that control normal contractions of your diaphragm.
Eating a large meal, eating too fast (swallowing air), or drinking carbonated beverages - These can cause your stomach to expand, which pushes up your diaphragm, making hiccups more likely.
Drinking alcohol - Alcohol can relax your diaphragm and vocal cords, making it easier for other factors to trigger hiccups.
Tobacco use - Tobacco use may irritate the nerves that control the diaphragm.

Want to know what else can cause hiccups? Then read more

Sudden temperature changes - Whether the change occurs inside your body (like drinking hot tea), or outside your body (when you go outside in the snow), it can cause hiccups.
Excitement or emotional stress - It's not clear why this can cause hiccups, but it may have to do with one of the nerves involved in the hiccup reflex being startled.

As annoying as hiccups can be, even if you don't sip water through a straw while pinching your nose, or hold your breath while saying the word "hippopotamus" in your head 5 times, hiccups will eventually go away on their own. Very rarely do hiccups last for more than 20-30 minutes. If they do, like this poor girl who had them for 3 weeks straight, there could be an underlying medical problem such as nerve damage. If this is the case, someone should definitely seek medical attention pronto.

Source

Speak Up: What's Your Remedy for Hiccups?

FitSugar — Thu, 24 May 2007 13:30:00 -0700

Hiccups. They can be so annoying, especially if they take a long time to go away like this poor girl who had hiccups for more than 3 weeks.

What causes hiccups? It's actually an involuntary spasm of the diaphragm. The sudden rush of air into your lungs causes the glotis (the space between your vocal cords) to close, which is what makes that "hic" sound.

Well, however they started, Fit wants to know: How do you get rid of your hiccups? Let me know in the comments section below.

Source

How Do You Cure Your Hiccups?

FitSugar — Thu, 15 Feb 2007 04:00:00 -0800

When I was young I figured out how to give myself the hiccups, really loud frog like ones, and would do exactly that during sermons at church. My mother would whisper angrily to me to go play outside. I would run to the playground and hang out until I knew it was time to go back in and sit down for the last few minutes.

Recently, during a long car trip, my husband got this exact type of hiccups and nothing would make them go away.

So, I was wondering how do you cure your hiccups?

Speak Up: How Do You Cure Hiccups?

FitSugar — Thu, 08 May 2008 12:00:00 -0700

Hiccups are no fun; they're annoying, loud, and they hurt your belly. Bouts of them usually last for just a few minutes, but that's not the case for Chris Sands – he's been suffering from hiccups for 15 years. Sands has tried various cures such as hypnosis and yoga, as well as 100 different variations of drinking water, but nothing has cured his problem. He has them as often as every two seconds, and they disrupt his sleep. Even brain and chest scans haven't helped determine the causes of his decade-and-half hiccup attack. His personal theory is that acid reflux condition has damaged the valve in his stomach and Sands hopes surgery can help.

Maybe he hasn't tried everything, though. I'm sure many of you have unique ways to cure hiccups, so please share them in the comment section below.

Source

New Hiccup Cure - Try It and See If It Works For You

FitSugar — Thu, 15 Feb 2007 09:38:16 -0800

Surfing around the web can lead you to some interesting places. I found this new cure for hiccups. It's not earth shattering science like a cure for cancer, but we are all affected by hiccups. Which, by the way is a spasm of the diaphragm that is suddenly interrupted by the closure of the vocal cords.

Basically, you stretch your abs pushing up on the the top of a door frame, while holding your breath. You should feel an arch to your back and your abdomen stretching. Take a nice deep breath before performing this maneuver since you will need to hold the position for about 30 to 60 seconds. See the photo of the move (love that he included a visual aid).

Unfortunately (or fortunately) I haven't had the hiccups since I read to test this guy's method. So file it away in your memory bank to try the next time you are afflicted with hiccups.

Hiccups

admin — Thu, 04 Sep 2008 19:04:40 -0700

Overview

Definition
Alternative Names
Considerations
Common Causes
Home Care
Call your health care provider if
What to expect at your health care provider's office

HEALTH GUIDE REFERENCE FROM A.D.A.M

Definition

A hiccup is an unintentional movement (spasm) of the diaphragm, the muscle at the base of the lungs. The spasm is followed by quick closure of the vocal cords, which produces a distinctive sound.

Alternative Names

Singultus

Considerations

Hiccups often start for no apparent reason and usually disappear after a few minutes. Rarely, hiccups can persist for days, weeks, or months. Hiccups are common and normal in newborns and infants.

Common Causes

Abdominal surgery
Any disease or disorder that irritates the nerves that control the diaphragm (such as pleurisy or pneumonia)
Hot and spicy foods or liquids
Noxious fumes
Stroke or tumor affecting the "hiccup center" in the brain

There may be no obvious cause for hiccups.

Home Care

There is no sure way to stop hiccups, but there are a number of common suggestions that may be effective:

Breathe repeatedly into a paper bag.
Drink a glass of cold water.
Eat a teaspoon of sugar.
Hold your breath.

Call your health care provider if

Contact your health care provider if hiccups persist for more than a few days.

What to expect at your health care provider's office

If hiccups persist to the point that you visit your health care provider, a medical history will be taken and a physical examination will be performed.

Medical history questions may include the following:

Do you get hiccups easily?
How long has this episode of hiccups lasted?
Have you recently eaten something that was hot or spicy?
Have you recently drank carbonated beverages?
Have you been exposed to any fumes?
What have you done to try to relieve the hiccups?
What has been effective for you in the past?
How effective was the attempt at home treatment?
Did the hiccups stop for a while and then restart?
What other symptoms are present?

Diagnostic tests are rarely necessary unless a disease or disorder is suspected as the cause.

To treat persistent hiccups, the health care provider may perform gastric lavage or massage of the carotid sinus in the neck. THIS MUST BE DONE BY THE HEALTH CARE PROVIDER. DO NOT ATTEMPT CAROTID MASSAGE AT HOME!

If hiccups continue, medications such as phenothiazine (especially chlorpromazine), baclofen, anticonvulsants may help. Nasogastric intubation (tube insertion) may also provide relief.

Very rarely, medical methods fail to treat persistent hiccups. Further treatment may include a phrenic nerve block. The phrenic nerve controls the diaphragm.

Review Date: 1/18/2007

Reviewed By: Benjamin W. Van Voorhees, MD, MPH, Assistant Professor of Medicine and Pediatrics, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL. Review provided by VeriMed Healthcare Network.

A.D.A.M., Inc. is accredited by URAC, also known as the American Accreditation HealthCare Commission (www.urac.org). URAC's accreditation program is an independent audit to verify that A.D.A.M. follows rigorous standards of quality and accountability. A.D.A.M. is among the first to achieve this important distinction for online health information and services. Learn more about A.D.A.M.'s editorial policy, editorial process and privacy policy. A.D.A.M. is also a founding member of Hi-Ethics and subscribes to the principles of the Health on the Net Foundation (www.hon.ch).

A.D.A.M. Copyright

The information provided herein should not be used during any medical emergency or for the diagnosis or treatment of any medical condition. A licensed medical professional should be consulted for diagnosis and treatment of any and all medical conditions. Call 911 for all medical emergencies. Links to other sites are provided for information only -- they do not constitute endorsements of those other sites. © 1997-2009 A.D.A.M., Inc. Any duplication or distribution of the information contained herein is strictly prohibited.

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Banish Belly Bloat

FitSugar — Wed, 03 Jun 2009 11:00:00 -0700

We all know that the best way to a flat belly is by burning calories and fat through cardio. Bloating, on the other hand, is its own beast, and nothing kills a day at the beach than feeling super bloated.

Luckily there are easy ways to reduce bloating so that you can show off that tummy you've been working so hard to get. Check out these easy ways reduce bloating for bikini season:

Stay away from salt. Too much sodium is not only bad for your heart but will cause you to retain water and feel bloated.
Drink water. Being dehydrated is a sure way to cause you to retain water, so be sure you drink enough water to keep your body hydrated.
Limit gassy foods. Some foods (such as lentils, artichokes, wheat bran, carbonated drinks, and more) create more gases in your body than others, so you may want to limit them if you're about to suit up.

There are two more so read more.

Eat fiber. Fiber helps everything move through the intestines more quickly, which prevents constipation and bloating. If you're not accustomed to eating enough fiber, then slowly add more and more fiber to your diet; go too fast, and you'll feel even more bloated than before. Also make sure to drink plenty of water with all the fiber.
Eat more slowly. One small cause of bloating could be that you're swallowing too much air when you're scarfing down your meals; this is why some of us get the hiccups when eating too quickly. So slow down when you eat and remember what mom said: close your mouth when you chew.

Do you have any sure ways to prevent bloating? I'd love to hear your tips so share them below.

Source

Smoking

FitSugar — Wed, 08 Oct 2008 17:34:57 -0700

HEALTH GUIDE REFERENCE FROM A.D.A.M

Highlights

Smoking and Your Health

Smoking may worsen knee osteoarthritis in men. A study published in the Annals of Rheumatic Disease found that male smokers have more pain and cartilage loss than men who do not smoke. Previous studies have not found such a link.
Smoking greatly increases the risk of age-related macular degeneration. An Australian study reports that smokers are four times more likely to develop the eye condition than those who have never smoked. Smokers also developed the condition at an earlier age.
Analysis of several studies suggests that smoking cigarettes and, in some cases, cigars or pipes, may reduce the risk of Parkinson's disease. However, smoking causes many other serious health conditions and should not be considered a means for preventing Parkinson's.
A small study suggests that infants who are breastfed just after their mother smokes sleep less than those whose mothers did not smoke.

Smoking Cessation

Certain genes may make it easier for you to quit smoking. Researchers at Duke University have identified more than 200 genes that distinguish those who have successfully kicked the habit. It is the first time such genes have been identified. The findings could lead to new smoking cessation therapies that target a person's specific genetic makeup.

Smoke Free Zones

More and more households in the United States are banning smoking. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reports that 75% of households now forbid smoking at any time or place in the home.

Smoking in the Movies

Teens who see actors smoke on screen are more likely to become established smokers, according to an updated study in the Archives of Pediatric Adolescent Medicine. Study authors say the likelihood of smoking increases with exposure to movies that depict such behavior.

Introduction

More than 20% of adults in the United States smoke, according to a 2006 report by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). More than 80% of them smoke every day. Although smoking had steadily declined among adults in recent years, the trend now appears to have stalled. Between 2004 and 2005, the CDC says there was no observable change in smoking rates among U.S. adults.

The addictive effects of tobacco have been well documented. Tobacco is considered to be a mood and behavior altering substance that is psychoactive and abusable. Tobacco is believed to be as potentially addictive as alcohol, cocaine, and morphine. Tobacco and its various components increase the risk of cancer (especially in the lung, mouth, larynx, esophagus, bladder, kidney, pancreas, and cervix), heart attacks, strokes, and chronic lung disease.

The younger children start smoking, the more likely they will smoke as an adult. Smoking is often immediately addictive. According to the American Cancer Society, the earlier you start smoking, the more likely you are to develop long-term nicotine addiction.

In the past, advertising was responsible for encouraging some teens to smoke. New regulations have made it much more difficult for advertisers to promote smoking to young people. However, scenes that show people smoking are still common in movies and television shows, often in a positive light. This may be a major influence on the attitude toward smoking in children and adolescents. An updated study in the Archives of Pediatric Adolescent Medicine found that adolescents that watch movies that portray smoking are more likely to become established smokers.

To prevent children from smoking, parents should not smoke, and they should tell their child that they disapprove of smoking. Schoolchildren who believed that both their parents strongly disapproved of smoking were less than half as likely to smoke as those kids whose parents did not show as much disapproval towards smoking. Other research has supported these findings.

Children whose parents closely monitor their television and music-listening habits are less likely to drink, use drugs, and smoke cigarettes.

Neglected children, or children with absentee parents, were four times as likely to abuse drugs, drink, and smoke as children living with parents who were regularly present and who offered a structured lifestyle.

In a 2002 study, children who regularly attended religious services were also less likely to smoke.

Doctors can have a major effect on young people. However, in one survey, less than half of teenagers had ever been asked by their doctors if they smoked or were counseled not to smoke, even though most teen smokers said they would admit to it if asked.

More American men smoke than women. The following chart details the rate of current smoking in the United States among adults aged 18 years and over, grouped by age and sex:

Age	Total	Men	Women
18 - 44 years	24.1%	27.1%	21.2%
45 - 64 years	21.9%	25.2%	18.8%
65 years and older	8.6%	8.9%	8.3%

Source: CDC/National Health Interview Survey 2005

While the number of adults over 65 who smoke is lower than those in other age groups, older adults usually have smoked for a long time (about 40 years) and tend to be heavier smokers, according to the American Lung Association. Because of this, older smokers are more likely to have smoking-related illnesses.

Caucasian students (under age 18) are more likely to smoke than Hispanics and African-Americans. In 2005, the rate of smoking was highest among American Indians and Alaskan natives. Hispanics and Asians had the lowest rates.

In general, the rate of smoking is highest in the Midwest and South and lowest in the Northeast and West. Utah has the lowest rate of smoking in the United States.

A major U.S. government study reported that people who have not graduated from high school or received their General Education Development (GED) certificate tend to have higher smoking rates than those who attended college.

Higher rates of cigarette smoking have been reported among adults who have earned a GED and those with a 9 – 11 grade education. The lowest rates are seen among those with advanced college degrees.

People with low self-esteem and adolescents with behavioral problems have a higher risk for smoking. Men and women with mental disorders are 50% more likely to smoke than those without such illness.

For example, depression and schizophrenia are known risk factors for smoking. Both may actually have biologic effects that are responsible for this higher risk.

Smoking is much more common among persons with disabilities than those without emotional, mental, or physical limitations. A 2007 Centers for Disease Control study found that the rate of smoking is nearly 50% higher among persons with disabilities. The CDC survey included those with mental illness and drug and alcohol addictions in the disabled group.

Evidence now strongly supports the idea that genes play a role in a person's dependence on nicotine. Researchers are now targeting specific genes that may be responsible for nicotine dependence. So far, research has been shown that there is a common genetic vulnerability to both nicotine and alcohol dependence.

Some studies suggest that the cheaper it is to buy cigarettes and smoke, the more widespread smoking will be. For example, states that have low taxes on cigarettes have a high proportion of smokers. Making it more expensive to smoke may reduce the number of smokers.

Nicotine Addiction

Nicotine is the chemical in cigarettes that makes them addictive. Higher levels of nicotine in a cigarette can make it harder to quit smoking. A report by the Massachusetts Department of Health found that the amount of nicotine in cigarettes has steadily increased over the last 6 years. Higher nicotine levels were found in all cigarette categories, including “light" brands. Massachusetts is one of several states that require tobacco manufacturers to submit yearly reports regarding cigarettes.

Some researchers feel nicotine is as addictive as heroin. In fact, nicotine has actions similar to heroin and cocaine, and the chemical affects the same area of the brain.

Depending on the amount taken in, nicotine can act as either a stimulant or a sedative. Cigarette smoking has definite immediate positive effects. For example, it can:

Boost mood and relieve minor depression
Suppress little fits of anger
Enhance concentration and short-term memory
Produce a modest sense of well-being

Most smokers have a special fondness for the first cigarette of the day because of the way brain cells respond to the day's first nicotine rush. Nicotine, particularly taken in the first few cigarettes of the day, increases the activity of dopamine, a chemical in the brain that elicits pleasurable sensations, a feeling similar to achieving a reward.

Over the course of a day, however, the nerve cells become desensitized to nicotine. Smoking becomes less pleasurable, and smokers may be likely to increase their intake to get their "reward." A smoker develops tolerance to these effects very quickly and requires increasingly higher levels of nicotine.

A smoker may "forget" their craving for nicotine if a part of the brain called the insula becomes damaged. A 2007 study published in the journal Science found that smokers with brain damage to this area were 136 times more likely to forget their addiction to nicotine. The findings may one day lead to new drugs that better help a person quit.

Smokeless tobacco, also called spit tobacco, includes chewing tobacco (dip and chew), tobacco powder (snuff), as well as flavored tobacco lozenges. These products also contain nicotine. There are two forms of spit tobacco.

These products allow tobacco to be absorbed by the digestive system or through mucous membranes. Smokeless tobacco contains at least 28 cancer-causing substances. Smokeless tobacco is not a safe substitute for smoking cigarettes or cigars. According to the National Institutes of Health, chewing on an average-size piece of chewing tobacco for 30 minutes can deliver as much nicotine as smoking three cigarettes.

Although research is inconsistent, some evidence suggests that smokeless tobacco produces a 50-fold increase in the risk of oral cancer, gingivitis, and tooth loss.

Health Risks

Smoking -- even just a few cigarettes a day -- has been linked to many serious health risks. Some are listed below.

According to the American Lung Association, smoking is directly responsible for about 90% of the deaths due to lung cancer. Smoking is also responsible for the majority of deaths due to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which includes emphysema and chronic bronchitis.

A study in the July 2006 American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine showed that smokers with asthma who give up smoking can improve their lung function in as little as 1 week. The small study involved 21 smokers with asthma. Ten of them quit smoking for 10 weeks, while the others continued to smoke. After just a week, lung function test scores in those who stopped smoking improved considerably. In less than 2 months, lung function scores among those who stopped smoking improved by more than 15%.

Study authors say their findings show that there is a “reversible component to the harmful effects of smoking on the airways in asthma.”

All forms of tobacco raise heart attack risk. Smoking, chewing tobacco, and being exposed to secondhand smoke greatly increase the risk of a heart attack. In some cases, the risk of heart problems in people who smoke or are exposed to smoke may be three times greater, according to a study published in the journal Lancet. However, the study also found that the risk of a heart attack among those who stopped smoking slowly decreased over time.

Smoking has a negative affect on a man's sexuality and fertility. Heavy smoking is frequently cited as a contributory factor in impotence because it decreases the amount of blood flowing into the penis. One study noted that among men with high blood pressure, smoking caused a 26-fold increase in impotence.

Smoking impairs sperm motility, reduces sperm lifespan, and may cause genetic changes that can affect a man's offspring. One 2002 trial found that men or women who smoke have lower success rates with fertility treatments. An earlier study reported that men who smoke also have lower sex drives and less frequent sex.

Studies have linked cigarette smoking to many reproductive problems. Continuing to smoke during pregnancy may also cause health problems in the baby.

Negative effects of smoking on female fertility include:

Greater risk for infertility. Women at greatest risk for fertility problems are those who smoke one or more packs a day and who started smoking before age 18.
Earlier menopause. Women who smoke tend to start menopause at an earlier age than nonsmokers, perhaps because toxins in cigarette smoke damage eggs.
Pregnancy complications. Women who smoke have a greater risk for ectopic pregnancy and miscarriage.

Click the icon to see an image of an ectopic pregnancy.

Effects on Unborn Child. Smoking during pregnancy increases the risk for stillbirth, prematurity, and low birth weight in their babies. Women who smoke during pregnancy have lower levels of folate, a B vitamin that is important for preventing birth defects.

Children of mothers who smoke during pregnancy may also be at increased risk for obesity and diabetes.

Some women have particular genes that may make them especially likely to deliver low birth weight infants if they smoke, although newborns of all female smokers have a greater risk for low weight. The good news is that women who quit before becoming pregnant or even during the first trimester reduce the risk for a low birth weight baby to that of women who never smoked.

Women who want to become pregnant should make every attempt to quit and should use smoking cessation aids before they try to conceive. After birth, if new mothers cannot quit, they should at least be sure not to smoke in the same room as their infant.

Smoking and Breastfeeding. Smoking right before breastfeeding may interrupt the child's sleep patterns. A small study found that such infants sleep less than other infants, and that their sleep time dropped significantly as levels of nicotine in breast milk increased.

Smoking has many harmful effects on bones and joints:

Smoking can keep new bone from forming. Women who smoke are at high risk for loss of bone density and osteoporosis.

Click the icon to see an image of osteoporosis.

Postmenopausal women who smoke have a significantly greater risk for hip fracture than those who do not.
Men who smoke may have more severe symptoms of knee arthritis, according to a study published in the Annals of Rheumatic Disease.
Smokers are more apt to develop degenerative disorders and injuries in the spine.
Smokers have more trouble recovering from surgeries, including knee or hip replacements. A 2006 study published in the Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery suggests that smoking delays tendon-bone healing, which may lead to a slower recovery after rotator cuff repair surgery.
Smokers whose jobs involve lifting heavy objects are more likely to develop low back pain than nonsmokers.
Smoking may increase the risk of rheumatoid arthritis in some older women. A 2006 study in Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases showed that smoking nearly doubled the risk of rheumatoid arthritis in postmenopausal women who did not have the most established genetic risk factor for the disease, a genotype called HLA-DRB1 SE.

Click the icon to see an image of rheumatoid arthritis.

Smoking may increase the risk of developing diabetes. Researchers involved in the Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study (IRAS) looked at the relationship between smoking and diabetes and found that 25% of smokers who started the trial with normal blood sugar had diabetes 5 years later compared to 14% of nonsmokers. The results were published in Diabetes Care.

A study released in 2006 supports earlier beliefs that smokers have a higher risk of developing glucose intolerance, a condition that precedes diabetes. The study, published in the British Medical Journal, involved 4,572 people. The findings suggest that chemicals in smoke could affect the pancreas. The pancreas is the organ that produces insulin, which helps control blood sugar (glucose) levels.

Smoking increases acid production in the stomach. It also reduces blood flow and production of compounds that protect the stomach lining.

Diverticulitis. One study suggested that smoking was a major risk factor in diverticulitis, a condition in which small bumps develop in the wall of the colon. In addition, smokers were at risk for complications from diverticulitis, including bleeding and abscess. Diverticulitis mostly affects people over age 50.

Inflammatory Bowel Disease. Smoking has mixed effects on inflammatory bowel disease. Inflammatory bowel disease is the collective term for ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease. Smokers have been shown to have lower than average rates of ulcerative colitis, but higher than average rates of Crohn's disease. Smokers with Crohn's disease who quit are said to have less severe symptoms.

Click the icon to see an image of inflammatory bowel disease.

Peptic Ulcers. Results of studies on the effect of smoking on ulcers are mixed. Some evidence suggests that smoking delays the healing of gastric and duodenal ulcers. One study reported that after ulcers healed, about half of smokers relapsed after a year, and that all heavy smokers relapsed after 3 months. Other studies, however, have found no increased risk for ulcers in smokers. Smoking does not appear to increase susceptibility to Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori), the bacteria that causes many peptic ulcers.

Click the icon to see an image of peptic ulcers.

Hepatitis and Cirrhosis. Smoking is linked to increased liver scarring (cirrhosis) caused by either excessive drinking or chronic hepatitis B or C viruses.

Cyanide, a chemical found in tobacco smoke, interferes with thyroid hormone production. Smoking triples the risk for developing thyroid disease, particularly hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism. Women smokers with subclinical hypothyroidism (a symptom-free condition in which the thyroid gland is mildly underactive) have a higher risk for developing full-blown hypothyroidism than their nonsmoking peers. Smoking has also been linked to goiter, a swelling of the thyroid that occurs in people who do not get enough iodine.

Click the icon to see an image of the thyroid.

Smokers are at increased risk for heart and circulatory problems and delayed wound healing after surgery. In one study, patients who were able to cut down or quit smoking 6 - 8 weeks prior to knee or hip replacement surgery were much less likely to suffer complications.

The following age-related conditions occur at higher rates in smokers than nonsmokers:

Cataracts. Quitting smoking reduces your chances of needing cataract surgery in the future, although not to the level seen with nonsmokers.

Click the icon to see an image of a cataract.

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD). AMD is a leading cause of blindness in older people. An Australian study, published in 2007 found that the condition is four times more likely in persons who smoke than those who have never done so. Symptoms of macular degeneration include a loss of central vision, which makes it difficult to read.
Gum disease and tooth loss. A government study found that more than half of the cases of severe gum disease in adults in the United States may be due to cigarette smoking.
Wrinkles. Studies confirm that smokers are nearly five times more likely to develop more and deeper wrinkles as they age compared to nonsmokers.
Baldness and premature gray hair. Certain chemicals in smoke break down in hair cells, which leads to hair damage.
Hearing loss, particularly high-frequency hearing loss. Some experts believe that losing the ability to hear high pitched sound in smokers may be due to a decrease in blood flow to the cochlea, the part of the ear that carries sound to the brain.
Incontinence. One study of 600 women indicated that smokers and former smokers are twice as likely to develop incontinence as women who never smoked.

Secondhand Smoke

Secondhand smoke is produced by a burning cigarette or other tobacco product. An estimated 4 million children a year get sick from being around secondhand smoke. Parental smoking has been shown to affect the lungs of infants as early as the first 2 - 10 weeks of life, and such abnormal lung function could persist throughout life.

Exposure to secondhand smoke in the home increases the risk for asthma and asthma-related emergency room visits in children who have existing asthma.

Parental smoking is believed to increase the risk for lower respiratory tract infections (such as bronchitis or pneumonia) by 50%. Environmental exposure to smoke is thought to be responsible for 150,000 - 300,000 such cases every year.

Smoking Bans

Smoking bans have spread across the country. By October 2007, at least 22 states and the District of Columbia have passed some type of law banning smoking in almost all public places and workplaces, including restaurants and bars. The date an individual state's ban takes effect varies greatly; some do not take effect until 2008 or 2009.

As of January 1, 2006, nine states were considered "smoke-free" -- California, Connecticut, Delaware, Massachusetts, Maine, New York, Rhode Island, Vermont, and Washington.

Quitting Smoking

It's never too late to quit smoking. According to the American Cancer Society, about half of all smokers who keep smoking will die from a smoking-related disease. Quitting has immediate health benefits.


Time after last cigarette	Physical Response
20 minutes	Blood pressure and pulse rates return to normal.
8 hours	Levels of carbon monoxide and oxygen in the blood return to normal.
24 hours	Chance of heart attack begins to decreases.
48 hours	Nerve endings start to regrow. Your ability to taste and smell increases.
72 hours	Bronchial tubes relax and the lungs can fill with more air.
2 weeks to 3 months	Improved circulation; lung function increases up to 30%.
1 to 9 months	Decreased rates of coughing, sinus infection, fatigue, and shortness of breath; regrowth of cilia in the airways, increasing the ability to clear mucus and clean the lungs and reducing the chance of infection; overall energy level increases.
Long-Term Effects	After a year, the risk of dying from heart attack and stroke is reduced by up to 50%.

According to the National Institutes of Health, about 40% of smokers who want to quit make a serious attempt to do so each year, but fewer than 5% actually succeed. A June 2006 report published by the NIH says that the available smoking cessation products and therapies are greatly underused. If more smokers asked for or were offered such help, the agency says quit rates could double or triple.

Some people have certain genes that make quitting easier. Researchers at Duke University have identified more than 200 genes that distinguish those who have successfully kicked the habit. It is the first time such genes have been identified. The findings could lead to new smoking cessation therapies that target a person's specific genetic makeup.

Methods of quitting smoking include counseling and support groups, nicotine patches, gums, lozenges, and sprays, smoking cessation pills, and slowly cutting back on the number of cigarettes smoked (incremental reduction).

About 4% of smokers who quit without any outside help succeed. Nevertheless, most people try to quit alone, and many have reported activities that can help the process of withdrawal. The primary obstacle in trying to quit alone is making the behavioral changes necessary to eliminate the habits associated with smoking. Excellent books, tapes, and manuals are available and are strongly recommended to help people who want to quit without other assistance.

Nicotine replacement therapy involves the use of products that provide low doses of nicotine that do not contain the contaminant found in smoke. The goal of therapy is to relieve cravings for nicotine and ease the symptoms of withdrawal.

In general, nicotine replacement therapy benefits moderate-to-heavy smokers the most. However, it does appear somewhat helpful for light smokers (people who smoke fewer than 15 cigarettes a day).

Nicotine Patches. Nicotine patches deliver nicotine through the skin. This is called transdermal nicotine delivery. It is effective in reducing symptoms during withdrawal. Nicotine patches are available over the counter.

Patches may work in different ways:

Step-Down Approach. Patches that use this method include NicoDerm CQ. The patches come in three strengths (21, 14, and 7 mg). You use the strongest dose first and reduce it gradually over a period of 8 - 10 weeks. A 21 mg patch is about equal to 15 cigarettes. A heavy smoker may need to wear two patches at first.
Single-Step Approach. The single-step patch (Nicotrol) can be taken off after 16 hours and replaced 8 hours later. It can be used for only 6 weeks.

Patches are applied and used in similar ways:

A single patch is worn each day and replaced after 24 hours.
To avoid skin irritation it is applied to different hairless locations above the waist and below the neck each day.
People can wear the patches for 24 hours, but some have reported odd dreams and have disliked the sensation of the patch during the night. People who wear the patch all the time, however, have fewer withdrawal symptoms and slightly better abstinence rates than those who take it off at night.
Patches should be stored and discarded safely, particularly in homes with small children. Small children have been poisoned and gotten sick from wearing, chewing, or sucking on nicotine patches. There have been no reports of death from children who have been poisoned.
The FDA recommends using the patches for 3 - 5 months, although some studies suggest that using them for 8 weeks achieves the maximum benefits.

Children should not come in contact with the patches, even while the smoker is wearing them. If the child has worn the patch, the affected skin should be washed right away. Urgent medical care may be required if the child has eaten nicotine or worn a patch for a prolonged time.

Nicotine Gum. Nicotine gum (Nicorette) is available over the counter and has helped many people quit. Some prefer it to the patch because they can control the nicotine dosage, and chewing satisfies the oral urge associated with smoking.

Tips for using the gum:

If you are just starting to quit, chew 1 - 2 pieces each hour. A smoker should not chew more than 20 pieces a day.
The goal is to stop using the gum by 6 months, but about 3% of people continue to use it long after they have quit smoking.
The gum must be chewed slowly until it develops a peppery taste. It is then tucked between the gum and cheek where it is stored so that the nicotine can be absorbed.
Coffee, tea, soft drinks, and acidic beverages may interfere with nicotine absorption, so people should wait at least 15 minutes after drinking before chewing a piece of gum.

Some people prefer other methods or cannot use the gum for the following reasons:

They find the gum unpleasant tasting.
Side effects specific to the gum may include upset stomach, mouth ulcers, hiccups, and throat irritation.
They are embarrassed by chewing gum.
They wear dentures.

Long-term dependence may be a problem with the gum. Although such dependence is probably safer than smoking, research is needed to confirm this, and experts recommend people chew gum for no more than 6 months.

The Nicotine Inhaler. The nicotine inhaler resembles a plastic cigarette holder. It comes with a number of nicotine cartridges, which are inserted into the inhaler and "puffed" for about 20 minutes, up to 16 times a day. The dose is gradually decreased. It requires a prescription in the United States. Several studies have reported that the inhaler triples abstinence rates (between 17 - 28%) compared with placebo (6 - 9%) after 6 months. It has some specific advantages over other nicotine replacement products:

The inhaler provides varying doses of nicotine on demand (as opposed to continuously with the patch or the gum) and is relatively fast-acting. Blood nicotine levels peak about 20 minutes after using the inhaler, comparable to the gum and faster than the 2 - 4 hours seen with the patch.
It satisfies oral urges.
Most of the nicotine vapor is delivered in the mouth, not into the lung airways (although some people experience mouth or throat irritation and cough).

Using a combination of the inhaler and the patch may be particularly effective. In one study, the combination led to an abstinence rate of over 60% after 6 weeks. While this percentage dropped off over time, it was still a large improvement over the use of the inhaler and a placebo patch.

The Nicotine Nasal Spray. The nasal spray satisfies immediate cravings by providing doses of nicotine rapidly and thus may play a useful role in conjunction with slower-acting nicotine replacement therapies. (Nicotine levels peak within 5 - 10 minutes after administering the spray). The spray can irritate the nose, eyes, and throat, so it may not be suitable for those with allergies or sinus infections. Most people, however, can tolerate the side effects, which usually go away within the first few days.

Nicotine Lozenge. A nicotine lozenge (Commit) is available over the counter. It is made from pressed tobacco and comes in two strengths for heavier or lighter smokers. In a large 2002 study, 15 - 18% of smokers who used it remained smoke free, compared to 6 - 10% who were given a dummy lozenge. Side effects included heartburn, hiccups, nausea, headaches, and cough. The Commit lozenge also contains phenylalanine, a chemical that certain people may need to avoid.

Facts about Nicotine Replacement Therapy:

Not cheating on the very first day of nicotine-replacement use increases the chance of quitting permanently by tenfold.
The more cigarettes a patient smokes, the higher the dose of nicotine replacement may be required at the start.
Adding a counseling program may boost the effect of any nicotine replacement program.
Do not smoke while using nicotine replacement. It can cause nicotine to build up to toxic levels.
Nicotine replacement helps prevent weight gain while it is being used, but people are still at higher risk for gaining weight when they stop all nicotine.

Side Effects. Side effects of any nicotine replacement product may include headaches, nausea, and other gastrointestinal problems. People often experience sleeplessness in the first few days, particularly with the patch, but the insomnia usually passes. Patients using very high doses are more likely to have symptoms. Reducing the dose can prevent them.

Special Concerns for Specific Individuals. There has been some concern that the patch might be harmful for people with heart or circulatory disease, but studies are finding that it poses no danger for these individuals. In fact, it may help reduce angina attacks brought on by exercise. However, unhealthy cholesterol levels (lower HDL levels) caused by smoking remain abnormal with use of the nicotine patch. HDL levels improve when all nicotine is stopped.

Nicotine replacement may not be completely safe in pregnant women, although it has been used successfully in this group without ill effect. There is an increase in heart rates in unborn children of women who use the patch as compared with those who smoke.

Keep all nicotine products away from children. Nicotine is a poison. All nicotine products should be kept safely away from small children. A parent should call a physician or a poison control center immediately if a child has been exposed to a nicotine replacement product, even for a short duration. Parents should also call the doctor if a small child has been exposed to a nicotine product and has any symptoms, including stomach upset, irritability, headaches, a rash, or fatigue.

Warnings Against Long-Term Use. No one should use nicotine replacement therapies as a long-term substitute for smoking. Any nicotine replacement therapy should be temporary. In one study, use of nicotine gum for more than a year was associated with insulin resistance, an abnormality that occurs in diabetes. Some studies have now suggested that nicotine itself may have properties that increase the risk for cancer, independent of carcinogenic chemicals in smoke. More studies are needed.

Bupropion (Zyban, Wellbutrin) is a type of antidepressant that is also an FDA-approved product for smoking cessation. It differs from most other antidepressants because it increases the effects of dopamine, the brain chemical that appears to play a strong role in nicotine addiction. Using Zyban along with nicotine replacement therapy may help you better control cigarette smoking cravings. Zyban does not contain nicotine. In most cases, Zyban is taken a week or two before quitting, and must be taken for 7 - 12 weeks. The usual maintenance dose is 150 mg tablet twice a day. No single dose should be higher than 150 mg.

Side effects of bupropion include gastrointestinal problems, headaches, insomnia, dry mouth, and irritation. In very rare cases, seizures have occurred, although usually in people who exceeded the recommended dose or who already had risk factors for seizures.

A newer drug called varenicline (Chantrix) may significantly reduce cigarette cravings and work better than Zyban. A study in the Archives of Internal Medicine found that almost 50% of those who took varenicline successfully quit. Varenicline mimics some effects of nicotine on the brain, but blocks others. Previous studies published in the Journal of the American Medical Association showed that Chantrix works twice as well as Zyban and quadruples one’s chances of successfully quitting. The FDA approved Chantrix as a smoking cessation aid in May 2006. It is for use in cigarette smokers age 18 and older. It should not be combined with nicotine replacement therapy.

The tricyclic antidepressant nortriptyline (Pamelor, Aventyl) may help reduce nicotine action. Quit rates with either of these medicines are as high as 30%. Long-term abstinent rates are more than twice those of placebo. Most other antidepressants, including fluoxetine (Prozac), have no additional benefits for smokers.

Nortriptyline has been specifically studied for helping smokers. It is best to start taking the medication 10 - 28 days before your intended quit date. Studies have reported quit rates of 14 - 24%. Side effects of nortriptyline include dry mouth and changes in taste. It should be noted that in rare cases, tricyclics can have serious side effects, and overdose can be deadly. Tricyclics may pose a danger for some patients with certain types of heart disease.

Smokers who use outside help have the best record for quitting, with success rates of 25 - 35%. Those who are counseled in addition to using nicotine replacement and Zyban have the best chance. Brochures, audio tapes, and other self-help materials are often ineffective when used alone, but may be helpful in conjunction with a counseling program.

Types of behavioral approaches:

Problem Solving or Coping Strategies. Smokers more likely to quit smoking when they learn thinking (cognitive) and behavioral techniques for breaking the link between certain cues and smoking, stress management techniques, and ways to handle the symptoms of withdrawal and the urge to relapse. The more intense the counseling program, the better. Smokers should look for programs that offer the following:

Session lengths of 20 - 30 minutes
Four to seven sessions
A 2-week program
Additional 2 weeks or more of follow-up contact

Scheduled Reduction. Scheduled reduction is a gradual way to stop smoking.

Divide the number of minutes per day that you are awake by the number of daily cigarettes you smoke. The number you get is how long you wait between smokes.
Week 1: Set up a schedule with time intervals based on this result and using a timer, smoke only at those intervals. If the "cigarette appointment" is missed by more than 5 minutes, you must skip that cigarette.
Week 2: Reduce the number of cigarettes you smoke by one-third and recalculate your time between smokes based on the lower number.
Week 3: Reduce the count again.
Week 4: Quit smoking

Those who are unable to smoke during working hours could try calculating the intervals based on the usual smoking times of the day.

The Staged Approach. The intent of the staged approach is to plan quitting interventions customized for each individual rather than imposing some general method for quitting. The approach takes the smoker through six stages with behavioral interventions at each point:

Pre-contemplation
Contemplation
Preparation
Action
Maintenance
Termination

Although some studies report this approach is significantly more effective than non-staged methods, an analysis of 23 trials did not find the staged approach to be any more effective than other methods. Most studies, however, were weak, and better research is needed on this approach.

People who follow this approach do not proceed from one stage to another in a simple, step-by-step fashion. They actually cycle or spiral back and forth, so that they may move from stage 1 to 2 to 3, and then back to 2 again. They may stay in maintenance mode for years and then fall back to stage 2. Remember that this is normal -- if you tried quitting in the past and didn't stick with it, don't consider yourself a failure. Just try again.

Stage 1: Pre-Contemplation.

People at this stage have no plans or desire to stop smoking. They aren't even considering quitting. People at this stage are generally unaware of the specific benefits that quitting can bring. Or, they may simply have "failed" in the past and have given up. There's no point in talking about how to start a cessation program at this stage. Instead, it is important to think about how quitting will help you feel better, have more confidence, or live longer. The benefits must be identified before a person will consider quitting. If you are at this stage, a good activity is to ask several friends or family members why they quit.

Stage 2: Contemplation.

A person at this stage is thinking, "I think I should probably quit, but I need help getting started." People at this stage know that quitting is good for them, but it seems like a daunting task or they don't think they can pull it off. Some may have tried and failed in the past. It's important for people at this stage to consider some of the truths and falsehoods of quitting. If you are at this stage, write down (brainstorm) all your potential roadblocks -- the things that you believe make quitting difficult -- and learn strategies for overcoming or side-stepping those hurdles. People at this stage might benefit from making a pledge, contract, or other commitment that they are going to get more active in the near future. The goal is to identify the roadblocks and ways to overcome these hurdles, and make a commitment to quitting.

Stage 3: Preparation.

Smokers at this stage are ready to quit. The goal of this stage is to create a specific action plan that takes all factors into account, so that quitting is successful. People at this stage need to know what methods work and what support exists to help them. If you are at this stage, you should consider some backup plans -- what to do when the urge to smoke hits you.

Stage 4: Action!

People at this stage have just quit. This stage is where the most behavioral change occurs. It requires significant commitment and energy. If you are at this stage, keep talking to friends and family for inspiration. Review your backup plans. Reward yourself for small achievements. Having a fellow smoker quit with you can be a huge support as you both get through this stage.

Stage 5: Maintenance.

People at this stage have been smoke-free at least 6 months. The goal now is to prevent relapse. If you are at this stage, continue to be wary of roadblocks and keep reminding yourself of the benefits you have gained. Think about what you have found most enjoyable about being smoke-free.

Hypnosis. Although rigorous studies are lacking, some people report successful cessation from smoking when hypnosis is given in individual sessions. The process is effective only if you trust the therapist and can feel completely at ease in the vulnerable and passive state necessary for hypnotic suggestion.

During a typical session, the hypnotherapist will use various techniques (such as imagery, silent counting) to put you in a relaxed state.

When you are very relaxed, but not asleep, the hypnotherapist quietly suggests motivations for not smoking. The hypnotherapist should also reinforce a positive self-image while you are in deep relaxation. This helps many people avoid the depression that accompanies withdrawal.

The sessions usually takes about 1 hour.

You should be taught methods of self-hypnosis to use at home, and follow-up once to reinforce what you've learned.

Acupuncture and Acupressure. The acupuncture technique for quitting smoking usually uses very tiny curved staples inserted into three different points around the edge of the ear. The procedure is painless. You will be told to press each staple in a certain order for a few seconds whenever the craving for a cigarette occurs. The acupuncturist may also use acupuncture points elsewhere on the body. There are no side effects except for some soreness if the acupuncture staple is pressed too hard.

A related technique called acupressure involves simply pressing select points on the body when a craving hits. Some studies have reported good quit rates with acupuncture, but few rigorous studies have been conducted using this approach.

Aim to Quit Completely

Everyone who quits should aim to quit completely. Most people who return to smoking "cheat" in the first few weeks. Quitting completely is essential to regain good health and reverse bad effects caused by smoking. Reducing smoking, even by half, does not eliminate the risk for cancer and other health problems. Although smokers take in less smoke and nicotine, the body is still unable to heal itself from the ongoing intake of toxins. It should also be noted that changing to low-tar cigarettes is not a solution. In fact, smokers of these cigarettes tend to inhale deeper, perhaps even increasing health risks.

Create a List

Write down 10 reasons to quit. In addition to health reasons, the list might include having better smelling hair, clothes, and breath; having fewer wrinkles; enjoying the taste of food; and saving money. Read the list often during the quitting process to help stay motivated.

Decide on a Specific Quit Date

Some people find it helpful to choose a particular date to quit when little or no stress is anticipated for at least the first 3 days. Women affected by PMS should avoid quitting right before their menstrual cycle. It may help to write out a quit contract, putting the date on paper, and getting a friend to sign it. Discard all smoking paraphernalia on the eve before the quit date, and make plans to stay busy on the day itself, and especially at night, when the urge to smoke will be high.

Make an Oath

Take an extreme oath. For example, "If I smoke one more cigarette my dog will die." Although this seems absurd, some people, even well-educated individuals, who have failed all other methods have reported that they quit completely and successfully after taking such an oath.

Let the Body and Mind Heal During Withdrawal

Retreat from the world when cravings become overwhelming. Take naps, warm baths or showers, meditate, or read novels.
Help your body get rid of nicotine. Drink plenty of water, eat fresh fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and fiber-rich foods. Carrots, apples, and celery are good munching foods.
When cravings occur, hold your breath as long as possible or take a few deep rhythmic breaths.
Use meditation or relaxation and deep breathing exercises. In fact, taking deep breaths when the urge to smoke occurs is a good stopgap measure.

Get Family and Friends Involved

Tell all your friends and family that you've already quit, so you'll be embarrassed if they catch you smoking.
Pay a family member or friend if they catch you smoking. The amount should be large enough ($5 - 20) to be a deterrent, but not so large as to be ridiculous.
If your partner or friend smokes, try persuading them to quit or, at the very least, not to smoke around you and others.

Exercise

Studies continue to show that smokers who exercise can greatly increase their ability to quit smoking while reducing their risk for weight gain. Move the muscles when cravings occur. Dance, run, walk, jump up and down, stretch, do push-ups. Yoga is an excellent exercise program for quitting. Older people and anyone with health problems should consult their health care provider before starting such a program.

Maintain a Healthy Diet

Eat plenty of fresh, crunchy fruits and vegetables. This is also a useful way of satisfying oral cravings without adding many calories.
Drink plenty of water and healthy beverages.
Moderate intake of coffee or tea may be helpful. A small study suggested that drinking caffeinated beverages (such as coffee or tea) while on nicotine replacement may enhance energy expenditure and may help prevent weight gain. Moderate coffee intake may also have antidepressant properties. Avoid caffeine in the evening, however, since sleep disturbances can be a problem during withdrawal.

Change Daily Habits

Change your daily schedule, particularly eating times, as much as possible. Eat at different times or eat many small meals instead of three large ones. Sit in a different chair or even a different room.
If you smoke after eating, find other ways to end a meal. Play a tape or CD, eat a piece of fruit, get up and make a phone call, or take a walk (a good distraction that burns calories as well). For example, if you normally have a cigarette with coffee, drink tea instead or use a different cup.
Substitute oral habits by eating celery, chewing sugarless gum, sucking on a cinnamon stick, or carrying worry beads.
Go to public places and restaurants where smoking is prohibited or restricted.
Set short-term quitting goals and reward yourself when they are met.
Every day put the money normally spent on cigarettes in a jar and buy something pleasurable at the end of a predetermined period of time.
Find activities that focus the hands and mind but are not taxing or fattening: Computer games, solitaire, knitting, sewing, whittling, and crossword puzzles.

Denormalization is the idea that smoking is no longer normal. This concept of denormalization is best instituted by laws and local regulations making smoking inaccessible in public places, raising prices, and putting stricter limitations on cigarette advertising.

Increasing taxes on cigarettes may be one of the most important methods for reducing smoking in the population, particularly in younger people.

Evidence is suggesting that banning smoking in work and public places may be leading to a higher quit rate than in places where smoking is permitted.

Denormalization can also work on a personal level. A British study showed that when one spouse makes healthy changes, including quitting smoking, the other one follows. In couples where smoking continues, it usually continues in both.

Symptoms of Withdrawal

After you quit smoking, you with have some withdrawal symptoms. Such symptoms generally peak in intensity 3 -5 days after you quit, and usually disappear after 2 weeks, although some may persist for several months.

The symptoms of withdrawal include both physical and mental difficulties.

Physical Symptoms.

Tingling in the hands and feet
Sweating
Intestinal disorders (cramps, nausea)
Headaches
Sore throat, coughing, and signs of a cold

Withdrawal symptoms should be treated accordingly, just as you would with physical symptoms due to an illness or disease.

Mental and Emotional Symptoms. Tension and craving build up during periods of withdrawal, sometimes to a nearly intolerable point. Nearly every moderate-to-heavy smoker experiences more than one of the following strong emotional and mental responses to withdrawal:

Temper tantrums, intense needs, feelings of dependency, and a state of near paralysis
Insomnia
Mental confusion, vagueness, or difficulty concentrating
Irritability, restlessness, impatience, or anger
Anxiety
Depression

The first signs of nicotine withdrawal seem to appear within 30 minutes of a smoker’s last cigarette. The findings, published in Psychopharmacology, are believed to be the first to show just how early nicotine withdrawal occurs. The study involved 50 people who smoked a pack of cigarettes daily. Half refrained from smoking for 4 hours, while the others smoked as usual. After 30 minutes, those who did not have a cigarette craved one and did more poorly on tasks requiring attention than those in the smoking group. Within 3 hours, the non-smoking group showed increases in anxiety, sadness, and difficulty concentrating.

Depression is common during withdrawal and over the long term. In the short term, it may mimic the feelings of grief felt when a loved one is lost. A smoker should plan on a period of actual mourning in order to get through the early withdrawal depression.

There is a significant association between cigarette smoking and a susceptibility to depression. People who are prone to depression face a 25% chance of becoming depressed when they quit smoking, and this increased risk persists for at least 6 months. What's more, depressed smokers have a very low level of success. Only about 6% remain smoke-free after a year. There are strong reasons for this:

Smoking may be masking depression, which can become severe even after the early stages of withdrawal have passed.
For some smokers, the future physical damage incurred by smoking is an abstraction, which fails to motivate quitting when measured up against the very real emotional pain triggered by nicotine withdrawal.
Not only does the smoker suffer, but the negative emotions often harm relationships with friends and family, who might even urge the ex-smoker to take up cigarettes again.

People who suffer from depression while quitting might do better using a combination of emotionally supportive therapy (as opposed to behavioral therapy), nicotine replacements, and antidepressants, such as bupropion (Zyban). If severe depression lasts beyond the withdrawal period, professional help should be sought as soon as possible.

Quitting smoking does increase the risk for weight gain. But, kicking the habit of smoking may cause more weight gain than previously thought. A study in Health Services Research found that the average weight gain among former smokers was about 21 pounds, rather than the 5 - 15 pounds commonly cited. But, fear of weight gain shouldn’t stop a person from quitting smoking. Instead, the study authors encourage weight-control measures after quitting. To come up with a new average, the scientists re-analyzed data from the 1998 Lung Health Study of 5,887 American smokers. That study found that those who quit smoking gained about 12 pounds.

Smoking uses up calories -- about 200 a day according to one study. Burning calories helps you lose weight. After quitting, the body's metabolism slows down, and food is digested better. Insulin levels increase, enabling the body to process more sugar for energy. When you quit smoking, you may snack more frequently.

How to Keep the Weight Off After Smoking. Exercise is very helpful in controlling weight. To burn the same amount of calories as you did while smoking, you need only take an extra 15-minute daily walk and eliminate 100 calories a day from meals. Just a moderate increase in physical activity can help keep weight gain to a minimum.

Nicotine replacement therapy can help protect against weight gain. See the section on "Quitting Smoking" in this report.

Failure to Quit

Biologic, psychological, behavioral, and cultural factors all play a role in nicotine addiction, making smoking one of the hardest addictions to beat. About half of people who quit return to smoking. Even after years of not smoking, some ex-smokers still have occasional cravings for cigarettes.

Some experts suggest that, in addition to depression, there are three major areas responsible for the inability to quit:

Mental performance. Nicotine improves concentration and thinking. Quitting smoking temporarily impairs one's mental performance.
Stress. Although smoking many not reduce stress, stopping certainly increases it.
Weight gain. Quitting smoking can cause you to gain weight. Studies are mixed on whether weight gain is permanent in most smokers or not. Certainly, it is a major factor in relapse. [See "Weight Gain" section in this report.]

How well a person does in the first 2 weeks is critical to their success. Smokers should not be shy about seeking all the help they can during this period. Although withdrawal symptoms can be intense, treatments are available to reduce them.

Attempts to quit are never a waste of time, since the amount of smoking is reduced during these periods. People who keep trying still have a 50 - 50 chance of finally quitting.

Researchers have been trying to discover individual risk factors or sets of behaviors that can help predict why specific people fail to quit. Some factors include:

Being female
Being a heavy smoker
Inhaling deeply
Being a long-term smoker
Having severe withdrawal symptoms

Among many studies, however, only one found a single consistent factor for failure to quit:

Cheating during the first 2 weeks of withdrawal, even with the patch, nearly guarantees that a person will smoke again in 6 months.

Studies show that women have a harder time trying to quit smoking and have less success with abstinence programs than men. There are many proposed reasons for this:

Nicotine has different effects on mood in women compared to men. Women who quit may have greater anxiety and stress than men who quit.
Women are not as physically dependent on nicotine as men, but they are more addicted to the actual behavior of smoking, which is the more powerful deterrent to quitting. This may be the reason why nicotine replacement, which only reduces cravings, tends not to be as effective in women.
Women may fear weight gain after quitting more than men.
Certain phases in the menstrual cycle may reduce the response to drugs that are used to help women quit smoking.
Men may be less supportive than women in helping their partners to quit.
Women trying to quit may miss the feeling of control associated with smoking more than men.

On the positive side, evidence suggests that when women quit, their lung function seems to improve more rapidly than in men who quit.

Lifestyle Changes

Smokers and former smokers should immediately begin to implement a healthier lifestyle and change any other behaviors that might be damaging their health.

Everyone should also maintain a healthy diet, with foods rich in whole grains and fruits and vegetables (particularly dark colored ones). Avoid saturated fats and instead choose monounsaturated fats, which are found in olive oil or fats from oily fish. Two studies have indicated that eating fish more than twice a week might help limit the tobacco damage in people who do not smoke more than a pack and a half a day.

Even with a healthful diet, however, smoking reduces the levels of a number of vitamins, importantly vitamin C. Some research suggests that supplementation of folic acid, a B vitamin, and the antioxidants vitamins E and C and selenium may improve lung function or reduce the damage done by cigarette smoke. Studies have shown that daily vitamin E supplements are associated with reduced risk for prostate cancer among smokers and that higher levels of vitamin E are linked to a lower risk for lung cancer. The best way of achieving healthy levels of important nutrients is from healthy foods.

Click the icon to see an image of the benefits of vitamin E.

Click the icon to see an image of the sources of vitamin E.

Women who are pregnant and continue to smoke must be sure to take appropriate vitamins, particularly folic acid. In this way, they might reduce the increased risk of fetal injury and death, although they do not eliminate that risk.

Regular exercise reduces a smoker's risk of heart disease (although still not to the level of a nonsmoker). Exercise does not lower a smoker's risk for lung cancer or emphysema.

If you smoke, you should be screened for any smoking-related disorders. Have your cholesterol and blood pressure checked regularly. Women should have annual Pap smears to detect cervical cancer. All older adults should be screened for colon cancer. Computed tomography (CT) screening programs, which are becoming increasingly available, may detect lung cancer at an early stage. Ask your health care provider if you should have this test, and if your insurance will cover it.

Resources

www.cancer.org -- American Cancer Society
www.lungusa.org -- The American Lung Association

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Review Date:
10/8/2007
Reviewed By:
Harvey Simon, MD, Editor-in-Chief, Associate Professor of Medicine, Harvard Medical School; Physician, Massachusetts General Hospital

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Newsletter - Week 18

FitSugar — Wed, 08 Oct 2008 17:34:53 -0700

HEALTH GUIDE REFERENCE FROM A.D.A.M

Welcome To Week 18

Your Baby: Did You Hear A Hiccup?

At about 5 1/2 inches (14 cm) in length and up to 7 ounces (200 g) in weight, the fetus is growing fast and looking more and more babyish. During this week, your baby sense of hearing has become much more acute. The baby can hear noises within the uterus of your bowel moving and even the blood pumping within your vessels. Additionally, the baby can hear things outside the uterus. So if you are talking to your partner, the baby is hearing some sound. (You may even feel the baby get startled inside from noises that take place outside!)

Though you probably won't feel them at this early date, your baby may have the hiccups, which happens before fetal breathing movements become common.

Your Body: Undergoing An Ultrasound

If you're like most women, you'll have a routine ultrasound about now so your caregiver can get information on your baby's health. Though this brief (5 to 10 minutes) and painless test is most often done during the second trimester, it can be performed any time between the fifth week of gestation and delivery.

There are two types of ultrasounds: transvaginal and transabdominal. With both, you lie on your back on an exam table while your belly or a probe is lubed up with a special gel. A transducer (a small microphone-like device) is gently pressed on your belly or inserted into your vagina -- the method depends on how far along you are and what type of equipment is on hand. The transabdominal transducer is moved over your belly and it works by picking up the sound waves that come off the bones and tissues in the body at a higher frequency than we can hear. These sound waves then produce an image on a nearby computer screen. The image on the screen, which for some is crystal clear and for others a big blur, is your baby. Regardless, most expectant moms find this first glimpse thrilling -- and over all too quickly.

Ultrasound is a non-invasive test that provides a tremendous amount of information to your health care provider about your baby's development and health. Some of the things that can be seen by ultrasound include:

Determine an accurate gestational age of the baby
Determine sex of the baby
See any anatomical abnormalities that exist in the baby
Determine if it is just one baby or more than one
See the location of the placenta and the baby's position within the uterus
See the amount of amniotic fluid
Watch how the baby's heart is beating and breathing movements

On That Note: Baby On View

As your next -- or in some cases, your only -- ultrasound draws near, you're eager to get a look at the precious cargo you're carrying. For a sneak preview of what the test entails, click on this ultrasound presentation.

Weekly Tip

Wear loose-fitting separates for the ultrasound exam. That way, you can easily pull the top half up and the bottom half down. And even though you'll mop up the goop on your belly with a towel when it's all over, some of it will surely wind up on your clothes. So whatever you do, don't wear your Sunday best!

Review Date:
2/6/2007
Reviewed By:
Douglas A. Levine, MD, Gynecology Service, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY. Review provided by VeriMed Healthcare Network.

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Pregnancy Center Links

Gastritis

FitSugar — Wed, 08 Oct 2008 17:35:33 -0700

Overview

Signs and Symptoms
Causes
Risk Factors
Diagnosis
Prevention
Treatment
Other Considerations
Supporting Research

HEALTH GUIDE REFERENCE FROM A.D.A.M

Gastritis is an inflammation of the lining of the stomach. There are many possible causes of this disorder, including an infection, an irritant, an autoimmune disorder, or a backup of bile into the stomach. The stomach lining may be "eaten away," leading to sores (peptic ulcers) in the stomach or first part of the small intestine. Left untreated, these ulcers may bleed. Gastritis can occur suddenly (acute gastritis) or gradually (chronic gastritis). In most cases, gastritis does not permanently damage the stomach lining, and sometimes no specific cause of the inflammation is identified.

Signs and Symptoms

The most common symptoms of gastritis are stomach upset and pain. Other possible symptoms include:

Indigestion (also called dyspepsia)
Heartburn
Abdominal pain
Hiccups
Loss of appetite
Nausea
Vomiting, possibly of blood (called hematemesis) or material that looks like coffee-grounds
Dark stools

Causes

Gastritis can be caused by infection, irritation, autoimmune disorders (disorders caused by the body's immune response against its own tissues), or backflow of bile into the stomach (bile reflux). Gastritis can also be caused by a blood disorder called pernicious anemia.

Infections can be any of the following types:

Bacterial (usually Helicobacter pylori)
Viral (including herpes simplex virus)
Parasitic
Fungal

A number of things can cause irritation, including:

Long-term medication use, such as , aspirin, ibuprofen or other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS)
Alcohol use
Cigarette smoking
Chronic vomiting
Coffee and acidic beverages
Excess gastric acid secretion (such as from stress)
Eating or drinking caustic or corrosive substances (such as poisons)
Trauma (for example, radiation treatments or having swallowed a foreign object)

Other causes for gastritis are very rare. These include:

Systemic disease (for example, Crohn's disease)
Sarcoidosis

Risk Factors

Infection with H. pylori
Crowded, unsanitary conditions -- this may increase risk of contracting H. pylori
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)
Any condition that requires relief from persistent pain using NSAIDS, such as chronic low back pain, fibromyalgia, or arthritis
Alcoholism
Cigarette smoking
Older age
Genetic abnormalities

Diagnosis

Several tests can be used to make a diagnosis. These include endoscopy of the stomach, where a thin tube with a light and a camera on the end is inserted down your throat to your stomach. This allows the doctor to see into your stomach and, if necessary, take samples (called a biopsy) from the lining. The laboratory tests you may need will depend on the specific cause of your gastritis. A stool test may be used to check for the presence of blood, or a biopsy may be taken of the tissues of your esophagus or stomach to determine the cause of your discomfort. A breath test may detect H. pylori, or samples from your esophagus or stomach may be taken to look for this organism.

Prevention

Making lifestyle changes, such as avoiding the long-term use of irritants (aspirin, anti-inflammatory drugs, coffee, and alcohol), will help in preventing gastritis and its complications (such as a peptic ulcer). Stress reduction through relaxation techniques -- including yoga, tai chi, and meditation -- can also be helpful.

Treatment

Treatment of gastritis depends on the cause of the problem. Some causes may resolve by themselves over time, or may be relieved by stopping the ingestion of irritating substances, such as alcohol, tobacco, and aspirin. Some dietary changes will no doubt be recommended, although the bland diet often prescribed in the past is no longer thought to be necessary. Medications are often necessary to relieve symptoms, eradicate an infection such as H. pylori, and prevent or treat complications from gastritis, such as an ulcer.

Lifestyle

The cure for gastritis caused by ingesting irritating substances is to stop the long-term use of these substances, which may include:

Alcohol.
Tobacco.
Acidic beverages such as coffee (both caffeinated and decaffeinated), carbonated beverages, and fruit juices with citric acid.
NSAIDS, such as aspirin and ibuprofen -- switch to other pain relievers (like acetominophen)
Eat a fiber-rich diet.
Foods containing flavonoids, like apples, celery, cranberries (including cranberry juice), onions, garlic, and tea may inhibit the growth of H. pylori.
Avoid high fat foods (at least from animal studies, high fat foods increase inflammation in the stomach lining).

Medications

If you have H. pylori, you will probably be prescribed three different medications. "Triple therapy" (including a proton pump inhibitor, such as omeprazole or Prilosec, to reduce acid production and two antibiotics to get rid of the organism) is commonly used to treat H. pylori-related gastritis and ulcers. Instead of one of the antibiotics, bismuth salicylate may be the third medication recommended. This drug, available over the counter, coats and soothes the stomach, protecting it from the damaging effects of acid. Two-drug regimens are currently being developed.

Some of the same drugs are used for non-H. pylori gastritis as well as for symptoms (like indigestion) due to ulcers of any cause:

Antacids, available over the counter, may relieve heartburn or indigestion but will not treat an ulcer. Antacids include aluminum hydroxide (Amphojel, AlternaGEL), magnesium hydroxide (Phillips' Milk of Magnesia), aluminum hydroxide and magnesium hydroxide (Maalox, Mylanta), calcium carbonate (Rolaids, Titralac, Tums), and sodium bicarbonate (Alka-Seltzer). Antacids may block medications from being absorbed and thereby decrease the medicine's effectiveness. It is recommended to take antacids at least 1 hour before or 2 hours after taking medications. Ask your pharmacist or doctor for more information.
H2 blockers, such as cimetidine (Tagemet), ranitidine (Zantac), nizatidine (Axid), and famotidine (Pepcid), reduce gastric acid secretion.
Proton-pump inhibitors, including esomeprazole (Nexium), lansoprazole (Prevacid), omeprazole (Prilosec), pantoprazole (Protonix), and rabeprazole (Aciphex), decrease gastric acid production.
Sucralfate (Carafate) makes a coating over the ulcer crater, protecting it from further damage.

Nutrition and Dietary Supplements

Doctors used to recommend eating bland foods with milk and only small amounts of food with each meal. It is now know that these eating habits are not necessary for the treatment of gastritis and ulcers. Following these nutritional tips may help reduce symptoms:

Foods containing flavonoids, like apples, celery, cranberries (including cranberry juice), onions, garlic, and tea may inhibit the growth of H. pylori.
Eat antioxidant foods, including fruits (such as blueberries, cherries, and tomatoes), and vegetables (such as squash and bell peppers).
Eat foods high in B-vitamins and calcium, such as almonds, beans, whole grains (if no allergy), dark leafy greens (such as spinach and kale), and sea vegetables.
Avoid refined foods, such as white breads, pastas, and especially sugar.
Eat fewer red meats and more lean meats, cold-water fish, tofu (soy, if no allergy) or beans for protein.
Use healthy oils, such as olive oil or vegetable oil.
Reduce or eliminate trans-fatty acids, found in commercially baked goods such as cookies, crackers, cakes, French fries, onion rings, donuts, processed foods, and margarine.
Avoid beverages that can irritate the lining of the stomach or increase acid production including coffee (with or without caffeine), alcohol, and carbonated beverages.
Drink 6 - 8 glasses of filtered water daily.
Exercise at least 30 minutes daily, 5 days a week.

Nutritional deficiencies may be addressed with the following supplements:

A multivitamin daily, containing the antioxidant vitamins A, C, E, the B-vitamins, and trace minerals, such as magnesium, calcium, zinc, and selenium.
Omega-3 fatty acids, such as fish oil, 1 - 2 capsules or 1 tablespoonful oil 2 - 3 times daily, to help decrease inflammation and improve immunity. Cold-water fish, such as salmon or halibut, are good sources, but supplementation is recommended.
Probiotic supplement (containing Lactobacillus acidophilus), 5 - 10 billion CFUs (colony forming units) a day, for maintenance of gastrointestinal and immune health. Some probiotic supplements may need to be refrigerated for best results. Your child may also take probiotic supplements. Consult with your health care provider before giving your child any dietary supplements.
Alpha-lipoic acid, 25 - 50 mg twice daily, for antioxidant support.
Vitamin C, 500 - 1,000 mg 1 - 3 times daily, as an antioxidant and for immune support.
L-glutamine, 500 - 1,000 mg 3 times daily, for support of gastrointestinal health and immunity.
Grapefruit seed extract (Citrus paradisi), 100 mg capsule or 5 - 10 drops (in favorite beverage) 3 times daily when needed, for antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral activity, and for immunity.
Resveratrol (from red wine), 50 - 200 mg daily, to help decrease inflammation and for antioxidant effects.

Herbs

Herbs are generally a safe way to strengthen and tone the body's systems. As with any therapy, you should work with your health care provider to get your problem diagnosed before starting any treatment. You may use herbs as dried extracts (capsules, powders, teas), glycerites (glycerine extracts), or tinctures (alcohol extracts). Unless otherwise indicated, you should make teas with 1 tsp. herb per cup of hot water. Steep covered 5 - 10 minutes for leaf or flowers, and 10 - 20 minutes for roots. Drink 2 - 4 cups per day. You may use tinctures alone or in combination as noted.

Green tea (Camellia sinensis) standardized extract, 250 - 500 mg daily, for antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and heart health effects. Use caffeine-free products. You may also prepare teas from the leaf of this herb.
Cat's claw (Uncaria tomentosa) standardized extract, 20 mg 3 times a day, for inflammation and antibacterial, or antifungal activity.
Reishi mushroom (Ganoderma lucidum), 150 - 300 mg 2 - 3 times daily, for inflammation and for immunity. You may also take a tincture of this mushroom extract, 30 - 60 drops two 2 - 3 times a day.
Olive leaf (Olea europaea) standardized extract, 250 - 500 mg 1 - 3 times daily, for antibacterial or antifungal activity and immunity. You may also prepare teas from the leaf of this herb.
DGL-licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) standardized extract, 250 - 500 mg 3 times daily, chewed either 1 hour before or 2 hours after meals. Glycyrrhizin is a chemical found in licorice that causes side effects and drug interactions. DGL is deglycyrrhizinated licorice, or licorice with the glycyrrhizin removed.
Mastic (Pistacia lentiscus) standardized extract, 1,000 - 2,000 mg daily in divided dosages, for activity against H. Pylori.
Peppermint (Mentha piperita) standardized, enteric coated tablet, 1 tablet 2 - 3 times daily, for symptoms of peptic ulcer. Each tablet contains 0.2 ml peppermint oil.
Tumeric (Curcuma longa) standardized extract, 300 mg 3 times a day, for pain and inflammation.

Homeopathy

Although few studies have examined the effectiveness of specific homeopathic therapies, professional homeopaths may consider the following remedies for the treatment of gastritis symptoms (such as nausea and vomiting) based on their knowledge and experience. Before prescribing a remedy, homeopaths take into account your constitution -- your physical, emotional, and psychological makeup. An experienced homeopath assesses all of these factors when determining the most appropriate treatment for you individually.

Pulsatilla -- for heartburn, queasiness, a bad taste in the mouth brought on by eating rich foods and fats (especially ice cream); symptoms may include vomiting partly digested food. This remedy is most appropriate for an individual whose tongue is coated with a white or yellow substance.
Ipecacuahna -- for persistent and severe nausea, with or without vomiting and diarrhea, caused by an excess of rich or fatty foods.
Carbo vegetabilis -- for bloating and indigestion, especially with flatulence and fatigue.
Nux vomica -- for heartburn, nausea, retching without vomiting, and sour burps caused by overeating, alcohol use, or coffee drinking. This remedy is most appropriate for individuals who also feel irritable and sensitive to noise and light.

Acupuncture

Acupuncture may help reduce stress and improve overall digestive function.

Other Considerations

Return to your health care provider if your symptoms do not get better or get worse. Do not ignore potentially life-threatening symptoms, such as vomiting blood or blood in your stool. Be aware that you may not see frank blood in your stool. The stools may simply look very dark, even black. Be sure to see your health care provider regularly, and call your doctor if there is any change in your symptoms.

If you are on both antibiotics and vitamin B12, take them at different times of day because vitamin B12 interferes with antibiotic absorption.

Pregnancy

If you are pregnant or breastfeeding, you should consult with your doctor before taking any medication, including herbs.

Prognosis and Complications

Symptoms of H. pylori infection are usually relieved with treatment, but you will most likely be asked to see your doctor 4 weeks or more after stopping your drug regimen. Follow-up is very important, because the H. pylori bacteria are linked to stomach cancer.

Peptic ulcers may develop when digestive juices damage the lining of the stomach or the first part of the small intestine (called the duodenum). These ulcers can generally be treated effectively with lifestyle changes and medication.

Supporting Research

Aly AM, Al-Alousi L, Salem HA. Licorice: a possible anti-inflammatory and anti-ulcer drug. AAPS PharmSciTech. 2005;6(1):E74-82.

Bujanda L. The effects of alcohol consumption upon the gastrointestinal tract. Am J Gastroenterol. 2000;95(12):3374-3382.

Burger O, Ofek I, Tabak M, Weiss EI, Sharon N, Neeman I. A high molecular mass constituent of cranberry juice inhibits helicobacter pylori adhesion to human gastric mucus. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol. 2000 Dec;29(4):295-301.

Burger O, Weiss E, Sharon N, Tabak M, Neeman I, Ofek I. Inhibition of Helicobacter pylori adhesion to human gastric mucus by a high-molecular-weight constituent of cranberry juice. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2002;42(3 Suppl):279-284.

Cabrera C, Artacho R, Gimenez R. Beneficial effects of green tea--a review. J Am Coll Nutr. 2006;25(2):79-99.

Cremonini F, Di Caro S, Covino M, et al. Effect of different probiotic preparations on anti-helicobacter pylori therapy-related side effects: a parallel group, triple blind, placebo-controlled study. Am J Gastroenterol. 2002;97(11):2744-2749.

El-Serag HB, Satia JA, Rabeneck L. Dietary intake and the risk of gastro-oesophageal reflux disease: a cross sectional study in volunteers. Gut. 2005;54(1):11-7.

Fox M, Barr C, Nolan S, Lomer M, Anggiansah A, Wong T. The effects of dietary fat and calorie density on esophageal acid exposure and reflux symptoms. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2007;5(4):439-44.

Gorbach SL. Probiotics in the third millennium. Dig Liver Dis. 2002;34(Suppl 2):S2-S7.

Han KS. The effect of an integrated stress management program on the psychologic and physiologic stress reactions of peptic ulcer in Korea. J Holist Nurs. 2002;20(1):61-80.

Hardin SR. Cat's claw: an Amazonian vine decreases inflammation in osteoarthritis. Complement Ther Clin Pract. 2007;13(1):25-8.

Kaptan K, Beyan C, Ural AU, et al. Helicobacter pylori -- is it a novel causative agent in vitamin B12 deficiency? Arch Intern Med. 2000;160(9):1349-1353.

Khayyal MT , el-Ghazaly MA, Kenawy SA, et al. Antiulcerogenic effect of some gastrointestinally acting plant extracts and their combination. Arzneimittelforschung. 2001;51(7):545-553.

Kim DC, Kim SH, Choi BH, Baek NI, Kim D, Kim MJ, Kim KT. Curcuma longa extract protects against gastric ulcers by blocking H2 histamine receptors. Biol Pharm Bull. 2005;28(12):2220-4.

Klausz G, Tiszai A, Lenart Z, et al., Helicobacter pylori-induced immunological responses in patients with duodenal ulcer and in patients with cardiomyopathies. Acta Microbiol Immunol Hung. 2004;51(3):311-20.

Marteau P, Boutron-Ruault MC. Nutritional advantages of probiotics and prebiotics. Br J Nutr. 2002;87(Suppl 2):S153-S157.

Marteau PR. Probiotics in clinical conditions. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol. 2002;22(3):255-273.

Martin B. Prevention of gastrointestinal complications in the critically ill patient. AACNAdv Crit Care. 2007;18(2):158-66.

McManus TJ. Helicobacter pylori: an emerging infectious disease. Nurs Pract. 2000;25(:42-46.

Olafsson S, Berstad A. Changes in food tolerance and lifestyle after eradication of Helicobacter pylori. Scand J Gastroenterol. 2003;38(3):268-76.

Paraschos S, Magiatis P, Mitakou S, et al., In vitro and in vivo activities of Chios mastic gum extracts and constituents against Helicobacter pylori. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2007;51(2):551-9.

Qasim A, O'Morain CA. Review article: treatment of Helicobacter pylori infection and factors influencing eradication. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2002;16(Suppl 1):24-30.

Rosch W, Vinson B, Sassin I. A randomised clinical trial comparing the efficacy of a herbal preparation STW 5 with the prokinetic drug cisapride in patients with dysmotility type of functional dyspepsia. Z Gastroenterol. 2002;40(6):401-408.

Ryan SW. Management of dyspepsia and peptic ulcer disease. Altern Ther Health Med. 2005;11(5):26-9; quiz 30.

Shibata K, Mariyama M, Fukushima T, Kaetsu A, Miyazaki M, Une H. Green tea consumption and chronic atrophic gastritis: a cross-sectional study in a green tea production village. J Epidemiol. 2000;10(5):310-316.

Simopoulos AP. Omega-3 fatty acids in inflammation and autoimmune diseases. J Am Coll Nutr. 2002;21(6):495-505.

Sugimoto N, Yoshida N, Nakamura Y, Ichikawa H, Naito Y, Okanoue T, Yoshikawa T. Influence of vitamin E on gastric mucosal injury induced by Helicobacter pylori infection. Biofactors. 2006;28(1):9-19.

Vonkeman HE, Fernandes RW, van de Laar MA. Under-utilization of gastroprotective drugs in patients with NSAID-related ulcers. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2007;45(5):281-8.

Woodward M, Tunstall-Pedo H, McColl K. Helicobacter pylori infection reduces systemic availability of dietary vitamin C. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2001;13(3):233-237.

Review Date:
8/23/2007
Reviewed By:
Ernest B. Hawkins, MS, BSPharm, RPh, Health Education Resources; and Steven D. Ehrlich, N.M.D., private practice specializing in complementary and alternative medicine, Phoenix, AZ. Review provided by VeriMed Healthcare Network.

A.D.A.M. Copyright

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